Fokus ROMI.HR

Početci boravka Roma u Italiji nažalost jedva su zabilježeni, kao i migracijski tokovi prema današnjoj Francuskoj, Njemačkoj i Španjolskoj. Svega nekoliko dostupnih izvora oslanjaju se na anonimne kronike koje prepričavaju sve događaje iz 1422. godine u Bologni. Kronika ide ovako:

Anno Christi MCCCCXXII. A dì 18 de luglio venne in Bologna uno ducha d’Ezitto, lo quale havea nome el ducha Andrea, et venne cum donne, putti et homini de suo paese; et si possevano essere ben da cento persone. Lo quale ducha si havea renegado la fede christiana (…). Et poi chel re d’Ungaria gli ave prisi e rebatezadi, volseno ch’egli andasseno per lo mondo sette anni e ch’egli dovesseno andare a Roma al Papa et poi ritornasseno in suo paese (…) et si haveano uno decreto del re d’Ungaria (…) per tucti quilli sette anni, in ogni parte che gli andasseno, che ‘l non ne posesse essere facto zustizia (…). Si dermono a la porta Galiera, dentro e de fuora, et si dormivano soto li portighi, salvo che il ducha, che stava in albergo da re; et steno in Bologna 15 dì et in quello che steno in Bologna gli andava de molta gente a vedere, perché gli era la mogliera del ducha, la quale diceva che la sapeva indovinare e dire quello che la persona dovea avere in soa vita, et ancho quello che havea al presente, et quanti figlioli haveano et se una femmina gli era bona o cativa, et s’igli avevano difecto in la persona (…).

Prijevod ide ovako: „Godine Gospodnje 1422. dana 18. srpnja došao je u Bolognu vojvoda iz Egipta, po imenu vojvoda Andrea, i stigao je sa ženama, djecom i muškarcima iz svoje zemlje; bilo je stotinjak ljudi. Ovaj se vojvoda odrekao kršćanske vjere (…). A nakon što ga je mađarski kralj zarobio i protjerao, željeli su [mađarski kralj, op. prevoditelja] da putuje svijetom sedam godina i na kraju ode u Rim do pape i potom se vrati u svoju domovinu (…). Imali su [vojvoda, op. prevoditelja]  dekret od ugarskog kralja (…) da za svih tih sedam godina, kamo god su putovali, nitko ne može nad njima suditi (…). Spavali su u Porta Galieri, unutra i vani, spavali pod arkadama, osim vojvode, koji je odsjeo u kraljevskoj gostionici. U Bologni su ostali petnaest dana, a dok su bili tamo, dolazilo je mnogo ljudi jer je kneževa žena tvrdila da zna proricati sudbinu, predviđati što će čovjek doživjeti u životu, kao i trenutne okolnosti, koliko djece imali, bila žena dobra ili zla i jesu li imale kakvu tjelesnu manu (…).”

Nakon dvotjednog boravka u Bologni uputili su se za Rim gdje su stigli nekoliko tjedana kasnije. Njihov boravak u Rimu nije naveliko zabilježen, ali moguće je ustanoviti da su išli tamo kako bi dobili papinu propusnicu (salvacondotto papale) s kojom bi dobili status hodočasnika. To bi im pomoglo osigurati zaštitu i izbjeći moguću zatvorsku kaznu ili protjerivanje od strane civilnih i vjerskih vlasti. Naposljetku su uspjeli nabaviti spomenutu propusnicu, ali o njezinoj se autentičnosti dosta raspravlja; nabavljanje lažnih dokumenata iz osobnih razloga ili za pružanje boljih životnih uvjeta bilo je zaista uobičajena praksa u to vrijeme. Jednom kad bi si priskrbili propusnicu pobrinuli su se da ju prenose s generacije na generaciju, djelomično prilagođavajući tekst i sadržaj mjestu na kojem su boravili ili specifičnoj zaštiti koja im je bila potrebna.

Na početku svog boravka, početna grupa Roma koja je naselila talijanski teritorij imala je sreće osim zbog propusnice i zbog spleta okolnosti na tom području. Srednjovjekovna Italija bila je prepuna feudalnih gospodara i vazala koji su često usvajali različite zakone i politike. Romima je stoga bilo vrlo jednostavno prelaziti s jednog teritorija na drugi i izbjeći zabrane i protjerivanja naprosto preseljenjem u najbliže selo u kojem je bila drugačija ovlast. Međutim, stvari su se pogoršale pred kraj srednjeg vijeka (14. st.) kad su lokalne gospodare koji su vladali malim feudima postupno počeli zamjenjivati veći gradovi-države čiji je krajnji cilj bio vladati susjednim gradovima i ljudima koji u njima borave. Neki od ovih talijanskih gradova-država su i danas vrlo poznati; na sjeveroistoku države postojala je Mletačka Republika čija se moć protezala kroz i Istru, Dalmaciju i skoro cijelu današnju hrvatsku obalu. Središnja Italija bila je podijeljena na nekoliko vojvodstava koje su se otvoreno međusobno borile za moć i koje su bile ugrožene dominantnom prisutnošću Papinske Države. Na kraju, južna Italija bila je podijeljena između Napuljskog Kraljevstva i Kraljevine Sicilije, obje su u to vrijeme bile stavljene pod španjolsku vlast.

U to vrijeme populacija u talijanskim gradovima-državama sastojala se od pojedinaca koji su dijelili zajedničke karakteristike kao što su vjerska uvjerenja i jezik. Kako bi očuvali unutarnji red, talijanski gradovi-države slijedili su vodstvo moćnijih i dobro strukturiranih kraljevstava poput francuskog i španjolskog te su počeli izdavati naredbe koje su protjerale Rome i razne druge skupine sa svojih teritorija.

Taj cilj ujedinio je sve talijanske dragove-države bez obzira na granice i ratove među njima. Venecija je prva proglasila zakon o zabrani boravka Roma na svojem teritoriju 1483. godine tvrdeći da su Romi kradljivci i osmanski špijuni. Čak i ako ne postoje povijesni zapisi o ovoj posljednjoj optužbi, istraživanja o turskom špijunskom sustavu u Italiji još uvijek su nedovršena i ne mogu se oslanjati na različite izvore. Stoga ne možemo automatski isključiti da su neke od ovih optužbi bile istinite. No, najčešće prihvaćeno objašnjenje je da je bilo koji razlog bio dobar za Veneciju da protjera Rome sa svojih granica, a onaj špijunski bio je vrlo zgodan jer je tih godina prijetnja Osmanlija nad dominacijom Europe postajala sve stvarnija. Milano je to popratio istim korakom 1493. godine.

U tom trenutku bilo je samo pitanje vremena kada će se ovakav zakon proširiti Italijom: Firenca je objavila 1547. godine da svi Romi moraju napustiti njezin teritorij u roku od mjesec dana, inače će biti uhićeni; Bologna je učinila isto 1565. godine, ali je Romima dala još kraći rok (tjedan dana). Godinu dana kasnije došao je red na Papinsku državu, i konačno, Napuljsko Kraljevstvo koje je izdalo niz vrlo učinkovitih najava zabranjivanja Roma sa svog teritorija između 1555. i 1585. godine.

Povijest Roma u Italiji također pokazuje koliko su njihove osobne priče bile duboko povezane sa širim kontekstom u kojem su živjeli. Dobar primjer toga je utjecaj Trentskog sabora (1545.-1563.) na njihove životne uvjete. Koncil u Trentu bio je skup koji je organizirala Rimokatolička Crkva kako bi preispitala svoju strukturu i načela kao odgovor na šokantni protestantski raskol koji je uslijedio nakon optužbi Martina Lutera za korupciju. Koncil je reagirao ponovnim uspostavljanjem dominacije pape i njegovih ovlasti te svih temeljnih elemenata katolicizma, uključujući sakramente, oproste i što je najvažnije za ovu priču, osudom svake duhovne doktrine izvan katolicizma. U to su očito uključene i bilo kakve „magijske“ i proricateljske radnje po kojima su, kao što je ranije spomenuto, Romkinje bile vrlo poznate. Iako učinci odluka Tridentskog koncila na Rome koji su živjeli na području današnje Italije nisu istraženi, može se tvrditi da je čvrsti stav Rimokatoličke Crkve protiv svake poganske aktivnosti mogao potaknuti i/ili ubrzati proces protjerivanja koji su započeli talijanski gradovi-države. Zapravo, osim Venecije i Milana, svi ostali dekreti su doneseni nakon završetka Tridentskog koncila.

Još jedan primjer Roma kao dijela talijanske povijesti je njihovo sudjelovanje u bitci kod Lepanta, koja se vodila 1571. godine. Godinu dana ranije, 1570. godine, organizirana je kampanja pretresa kuća kako bi se pronašli Romi koji bi se mogli poslati u borbu protiv Osmanlija. Ova poznata bitka i danas igra veliku ulogu u povijesti rimokatolicizma, jer je označila pobjedu Svete lige, sastavljene od mnogih talijanskih gradova-država i regija pod španjolskom dominacijom, protiv Osmanlija i islama. Povijesna vrijednost bitke za Lepanto bila je ogromna već 1570-ih, do te mjere da je svaka osoba pod katoličkom vlašću morala dati svoj doprinos. Stoga su Romi koje je Venecija porobila također unovačeni kao veslači za bitku. Iako je njihov trud sigurno pomogao u ostvarenju ove pobjede, njihova se prisutnost na mletačkim brodovima rijetko spominje i često odbacuje.

Postoji dodatni element koji se mora uzeti u obzir: strah od kuge i očajnički pokušaj gradova-država da izbjegnu hitne zdravstvene situacije i ograniče broj smrtnih slučajeva koliko god je to moguće. Doista, tadašnja Italija već se suočila s nekoliko epidemija kuge, osobito od sredine 1500. i nadalje, a posebno u sjevernom dijelu svog teritorija. Broj smrtnih slučajeva među stanovništvom u gradovima poput Milana bio je strahovito visok (primjerice, između 1576. i 1578. godine od kuge je umrlo 18.000 ljudi), a takvoj katastrofi pridonijeli su i loši higijenski uvjeti u gradovima koji su znatno olakšali širenje kuge. Osim toga, izbijanja kuge često je išlo ruku pod ruku s glađu, što je rezultiralo općenito nižom razinom fizičkog blagostanja i raširenom pothranjenošću, čineći zarazu još lakšom. Iz tih su razloga neki istraživači predložili zanimljivu teoriju; Romi, zajedno s drugim nomadskim skupinama, su možda bili masovno protjerani od strane talijanskih gradova-država jer su zbog toga što su bili smatrani beskućnicima bili mogući prijenosnici zaraza i bolesti.

Stoga su romske skupine od ranog 16. stoljeća i nadalje bile prisiljene živjeti na geografskim i društvenim granicama zemalja koje su ih protjerivale. Ipak, ovaj se pristup obio o glavu talijanskim gradovima-državama koji su ga provodili. Primjerice, u nastojanju da se smanji kriminal i očuva javni red, mnogi pripadnici romskih skupina su protjerani i posljedično suočeni sa sve većim siromaštvom i nemogućnošću da steknu nešto novca proricanjem iz dlana ili kovačkim zanatom kao nekada. To je često rezultiralo njihovim upuštanjem u nezakonite radnje poput krađe na štetu ostatka stanovništva kako bi zadovoljili svoje osnovne potrebe. To je istovremeno učvrstilo percepciju drugih ljudi o Romima kao opasnim i nemoralnim osobama od kojih se iz sigurnosnih razloga mora držati što je moguće dalje.

Očito je da su priče poput ove plod te epohe i bilo bi nepravedno raspravljati o tim događajima bez razmatranja koliko su društvo, politika i ekonomija bili drugačiji u odnosu na današnje. Ipak, gledajući unatrag na povijest srednjeg vijeka i renesansne Italije, shvaćamo kako su Romi bili dio mnogih ključnih događaja koji su se ticali ovog dijela Europe, od epohalnih bitaka do zastrašujućih bolesti, istovremeno naglašavajući da se velik dio njihovog sudjelovanja u povijesti često zanemaruje i prešućuje.

DISCOVERING THE ORIGINS OF THE ROMA PRESENCE IN ITALY

The history of the first Roma groups that settled in Italy is rarely explored, and the impacts of the political changes that happened between Middle Age and the Renaissance on their lives are never discussed properly or taught in Italian schools. Understanding Roma people’s historical vicissitudes offers us another way to look at Italian history.

The early days of the first Roma groups in Italy are, unfortunately, scarcely documented, similarly to what happens for migratory flows directed towards the countries we today know as France, Germany, and Spain. All the few available sources rely on an anonymous chronicle that retraces all the events of 1422 in Bologna. This chronicle goes:

Anno Christi MCCCCXXII. On the 18th of July a duke of Ezitto came to Bologna, whose name was duke Andrea, and he came with women, children and men of his country; and there could be as many as one hundred people. This duke had renounced the Christian faith (…). And after the king of Hungary had taken them and rebaptized them, they wanted them to go out into the world for seven years and that they should go to Rome to the Pope and then return to their country (…) and they had a decree from the king of Hungary (…) for all seven years, in every part that they went, that no punishment could be done to them (…). They settled at the Porta Galiera, inside and outside, and slept under the porticoes, except for the duke, who was staying in the king's inn; and I was in Bologna for 15 days and during the time I was in Bologna many people went to see him, because he was the duke's wife, who said that she could guess and tell what a person would have in life, and also what he had at present, and how many children they had and whether a female was good or bad, and whether they had any personal defects (…).

The translation goes as follows: “Year of Our Lord 1422. On the 18th of July, a duke from Egypt came to Bologna, whose name was Duke Andrea, and he arrived with women, children, and men from his country; there were around a hundred people. This duke had renounced the Christian faith (…). And after the King of Hungary had captured and exiled him, they wanted him to travel the world for seven years and eventually go to Rome to see the Pope and then return to his homeland (…). They had a decree from the King of Hungary (…) that for all those seven years, wherever they traveled, no one could administer justice against them (…). They slept at the Porta Galiera, inside and outside, sleeping under the arcades, except for the duke, who stayed in a royal inn. They stayed in Bologna for fifteen days, and while they were there, many people came to see them because the duke’s wife claimed she could tell fortunes, predicting what a person would experience in their life, as well as their present circumstances, how many children they had, whether a woman was good or evil, and if they had any bodily defect (…).”

After their two-week stop in Bologna, they left for Rome, where they arrived some weeks later. Their presence in Rome is not widely documented, but it is possible to reconstruct why they needed to go there: to obtain a papal safe-conduct (salvacondotto papale) recognizing them as peregrines. This would have helped them gain protection and escape possible imprisonments or expulsions from civilian and religious authorities. They eventually managed to acquire said safe-conduct, but its authenticity is highly debated: indeed, at that time obtaining false documents for personal reasons or to access better living conditions was a common practice. Once the safe-conduct was in their hands, they passed it down from one generation to the other for decades, partially adapting its text and content to the place where they were, or the specific protection they needed.

Apart from this safe-conduct, the initial group that settled within the Italian territory was helped, at the beginning of its staying, by a conjuncture of events. Medieval Italy was brimming with many feudal lords and vassals, who often adopted different laws and policies. Hence, it was relatively easy for Roma to move from one territory to the other, and to flee bans and expulsions simply by relocating in the nearest village in which a different jurisdiction was at place. However, things turned for the worse at the end of Middle Ages (XIV century) when local lords reigning over small feuds started being gradually replaced by larger city-states, whose ultimate goal was to rule over their neighboring cities and the people living therein. Some of these Italian city-states are still well-known: in the northeastern side of the country one could find the Republic of Venice, whose power extended also throughout Istria, Dalmatia, and almost all of today’s Croatian coastal area. Central Italy was split among many independent duchies, which were openly fighting among themselves for power, and were constantly threatened by the cumbersome presence of the Papale State. Lastly, Southern Italy was divided between the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily, both at that time placed under Spanish rule.

At that time, population in Italian city-states was composed of individuals who shared common characteristics, such as religious beliefs and language. To preserve internal order, Italian city-states followed the lead of more powerful and well-structured kingdoms, like the French and Spanish one, and started emanating decrees that expelled Roma and other various groups from their territories.

This objective drew together all the Italian city-states, overarching borders and even internal wars among them. Venice was the first to promulgate a law that banned Roma groups from its territory, in 1483, claiming that they were thieves and Ottoman spies. Even if there are no historical records of this last accusation, researches on the Turkish espionage system in Italy are still rudimentary and cannot rely on a variety of sources. Therefore, we cannot automatically exclude that some of these allegations were actually true. However, the most commonly accepted explanation is that any reason would have been good for Venice to expel Roma from its borders, and the espionage one was quite handy because, in those same years, the threat of an Ottoman-dominated Europe was getting increasingly more real. Milan followed by quickly, in 1493.

At that point, it was just a matter of time before this approach spread across Italy: in 1547 Florence declared that all Roma had to exit its territory within one month, otherwise they would have been arrested; Bologna did the same in 1565, but it gave Roma people an even shorter notice (one week). One year later it was the turn of the Papal State, and lastly, the Kingdom of Naples produced a series of highly effective announcements interdicting Roma from its territory between 1555 and 1585.

The history of Roma in Italy also shows how deeply interconnected their personal stories were with the broader context in which they were living. A good example in this sense is the impact of the Council of Trento (1545-1563) on their living conditions. The Council of Trento was an assembly organized by the Roman Catholic Church to rethink its structure and principles in response to the shocking Protestant schism that followed Martin Lutero’s accusations of corruption. The Council reacted by reinstating the predominance of the Pope and his powers, and all the core elements of Catholicism, including sacraments, indulgencies and, most importantly for this story, by condemning every spiritual doctrine outside of Catholicism. Obviously, this also included any sort of ‘magical’ and divinatory activities, for which – as mentioned earlier – Roma women were very renowned. Once again, the effects of the decisions taken by the Council of Trento on Roma people residing within current Italy have not been investigated, but it can be argued that the firm stand taken by the Roman Catholic Church against every pagan activity might have encouraged and/or accelerated the process of expulsions started by Italian city-states. As a matter of fact, aside from Venice and Milan, all other decrees have been passed after the Council of Trento ended.

Another example of how Roma people were part of Italian history can be found in their involvement in the Battle of Lepanto, which was fought in 1571. One year earlier, in 1570, a campaign of house-to-house searches was organized to find Roma individuals who could be sent to fight the Ottomans. This famous battle still plays a huge role in the history of Roman Catholicism, because it marked the victory of the Holy League, composed of many Italian city-states and regions under Spanish domination, against the Ottomans and Islam. The historical value of the Lepanto battle was already enormous in 1570s, to the extent that every person placed under Catholic powers had to give its own contribute to the cause. Hence, Roma men who had been enslaved by Venice were also recruited as rowers for the battle, and even though their efforts surely helped achieving this victory, their presence on Venetian ships is rarely mentioned and often dismissed.

There is an additional element that must be considered: the fear of plague and the desperate attempt by city-states to avoid health emergencies and contain the death toll as much as possible. Indeed, current Italy had already faced several outbreaks of plague, especially from mid-1500 onwards, and especially in the northern part of its territory. The number of deaths among the population in cities like Milan was dramatically high (where, for example, 18.000 people died of plague between 1576 and 1578), and such a catastrophe was also caused by the cities’ poor hygienic conditions that made the spread of the Black Death much easier. Additionally, plague outbreaks would often go hand in hand with famine, which resulted in generally lower level of physical wellbeing and widespread malnutrition, making contagion even more straightforward. For these reasons, some researchers have suggested an interesting hypothesis: that Roma people, along with other nomad groups, may have been massively expelled by Italian city-states because, by being homeless, they were seen as possible carriers of infections and diseases.

Therefore, from the early XVI century onwards, Roma groups were forced to live at the geographical and societal borders of the countries that were interdicting them. Yet, this approach somehow backfired on the Italian city-states who were enforcing it. For example, in the attempt to reduce crime and preserve public order, many members of Roma groups were expelled and consequently faced with growing poverty and the impossibility of earning money through palmistry or blacksmithing, as they used to. This often resulted in them engaging in illegal activities, such as theft, at the expense of the rest of the population, to satisfy their basic needs. At the same time, this reinforced other people’s perception of Roma as dangerous and amoral individuals that had to be kept as distant as possible for security reasons.

It is obvious that stories like this one are the fruit of their own epoch, and it would be unfair to discuss these events without considering how different society, politics, and economics were compared to today. Yet, looking back at the history of Middle Ages and Renaissance Italy makes us realize how Roma people were part of many crucial events that concerned this part of Europe, from epochal battles to horrifying pestilences, while also highlighting that much of their participation in history is often neglected and overlooked.